「ハイバイオマス社会における人間と自然の相関性」プロジェクト研究発表にたいするコメント ロハン・ド・スーザ
「ハイバイオマス社会での人間と自然の相関性」プロジェクト研究発表にたいするコメント
ロハン・ド・スーザ (Jawaharlal Nehru University)
はじめに
「ハイバイオマスプロジェクト」（以下、HBP）では、ボルネオ・サラワク州のクムナ～ジュラロン間の河川流域という社会的多様な地域において、現在、最重要課題とされる環境変化と社会変容に関する資料の収集記録に取り組んでいる。昨今のプランテーション農法（アブラヤシとアカシア）の導入は、同地域の産業エコロジーとして、当然ながら、広範囲にわたって景観と地域文化に変化を及ぼしてきた。クムナ～ジュラロン流域における、その与えるインパクトの規模と奥深さを推し測る研究は、きわめて重要な取り組みである。それは、ただ環境および社会的軌跡の記録だけでなく、特に東南アジアの諸地域にとって、またさらに今日の開発と環境問題に対して重要な示唆を与えうる点においてもっとも重要だといえる。
私が見る限りでは、本研究計画は非常に明確で大変興味深いものである。研究の根底には、社会科学と自然科学の対話を生み出す目的が置かれている。つまり、人文科学の主張を背負いながら、「中間的な」科学の概念をもとめる試みを追求する。このような、分野の境界を崩し、また和らげることが、環境変化や社会変容、そしてさらに必然的にも捉えどころのない持続性という概念にかんする諸課題の議論の可能性を切り拓いてくれるものとなるであろう。
各発表について、
7月18日のワークショップでは、以下のテーマにおいて発表がおこなわれた。
a)プロジェクトの概要
b)アブラヤシ生産の物質的および財政的メタボリズム
c)19世紀サラワクの貿易
d)木材伐採地における持続ある森林管理
e)野生生物目録
f)ツバメの巣の輸出
g)水質と水流
明らかなように、プロジェクトでは、地域にさし迫った諸問題の全体像を複合的に示す事を目的としている。これらのテーマは、それぞれ個別の研究関心にしたがいながら、全体として、地域の政治経済の全体像を示し、また環境変化の文脈についてまとめあげている。野生生物に関する発表とアブラヤシ小規模生産者の成立についての議論は、当地域の住民が、変化するシナリオに対し、ただ受動的姿勢を貫くのではなく、むしろ彼らなりに可能性を積極的に追求していることを示した。言いかえれば、地域住民の関与とは、潜在的機会とうまく折り合い適合して、さらに活用してゆく試みであると捉えることができる。つまり、新たに出現しつづける脆弱と不安定な状況によって、地域住民が悪影響を受けていると見える中にあっても、実は彼らはつねに新たな好機つかもうとしているのである。おそらく、社会と環境の変化の文脈における住民の多様な対応について、今後もさらに、このようなローカルな戦略をとらえた多くの研究がなされてゆくであろう。William Crononの素晴らしい著Changes in the Landを思いおこされた。この名著では、アメリカ先住民が、ヨーロッパ人の移住者に対しどのように対応するかを述べている。
貿易の歴史および各地の都市部とマーケットの商業的連関（例えばツバメの巣）に関する発表では、グローバル商品における地域の複雑なつながりを強調してくれた。明らかなのは、サラワクはグローバル情勢のなかで孤立することもできなければ、またそのように見なすことさえもできない。ここではより多くの意味合いが含まれる。その1つは、貿易と商業におけるローカルな制度が、時間を通していかに機能していたかを理解することの必要性である。そして、そのような制度が、当流域における森林への圧力に対して、いかに対応してきたであろうか。
水質と伐採の影響に関する発表では、産業プランテーションの諸問題に対する人びとの認識と解決への彼らの考えについて、一定の対話に基づいた高度な科学的見地からの専門家によるデータ分析の際立った必要性が示された。私は、個人的には、専門家の評価が、地域の住民が苦境を強いられるといった彼らの不満の声を分け隔てたところにおいて機能するとは思っていない。
私からの提案と期待
HBPに関する研究調査の成果に喜びを表し、以下に2つの意見を述べたい。
a)ここでは、社会と自然にかんする概念を改めてみたい。それは、地域住民が、現存の文化的特性をとおして、いかに自然環境を捉えて理解しているかを把握するために重要である。一方では、自然は決して文化的構築物にはなり下がることはない。自然は、現代科学という世俗的な手法によって、その独自の実質性が検討され明らかにされる。私は、そのような理論の緊張の持続は、社会科学と自然科学の間の対話を、いかに当プロジェクトが維持するかにおいて重要なものになると考えている。
b)2つめには、現在起きている劇的な変化を考慮して、私は地域に対する新たな想像力がいかに生成されているかを探求する試みに応じたい。これは問題を解決する行為ではなく、むしろ問題を生成する行為として、私は研究者に対し追究するよう求める。2つの違いは次のとおりである。問題を生成する行為との意味は、調査チームが、問題の諸局面と様相の確実かつ強制的な立証に関心をもつが、これは解決には結びつかないものであるのは明らかだ。ただし、ここでは問題が正しく構築されることによって、1つの解決経路を主張するよりも、複数の解決法を示すことができる上で重要だといえる。またもう一方の問題解決アプローチにおいては、専門家は地域住民の声を除外する傾向がある。むしろ、問題が確実に立証されたなら、良き政策において、多様なステークホルダーの参加を受け入れて解決を模索するのが良い。すでに述べたように、当流域は生息環境のモザイクを成している。たしかに多様な民族グループが居住するが、しかしそれぞれが環境ゾーンごとに配置されているのではなく、社会と環境の連続性をとおして一体的に結ばれているのである。生息環境モザイクのコラージュとは、言いかえれば、相互依存とつながりの仕組みがそれぞれ縫い合わされた形態なのである。そして諸課題への解決は、専門家のアドバイスによるトップダウン式ではなく、民主的な議論と対話によって生まれるであろう。
最後に、当プロジェクトにおける、環境史や政治生態学、批判地理学、そして科学技術研究など諸分野間がかかわって対応してゆくという取り組みを応援したい。環境の変化と社会の変容は、上記の学問諸分野において日常的なテーマであるが、記述するだけでなく、今回のワークショップのように、対話を通じたそれぞれの経験の比較が試みられることにおいて大きな可能性をもつといえる。河川流域社会から沿道社会へのシフトはアジア各地に共通して見られる事象であり、そこに注目した当プロジェクトが、今後新たな事実と有力な学術理論をもって、その実態を明らかにしていくであろう。
（訳 長谷川悟郎）
Introduction The High Biomass Project (Henceforth HBP) has taken up the task of documenting and examining a profound moment of environmental transformation and social change along the sprawling watershed of the Kemena-Jelalong river in Sarawak (Borneo). The recent introduction of plantations (oilpalm and acacia), as a type of industrial ecology in the region, has, understandably, initiated wide-ranging landscape and cultural alterations. Capturing both the scale and depth of these impacts and other consequences in the Kemena-Jelalong watershed is undoubtedly an important research initiative. Not merely because it can track and analyse the environmental and social trajectories that are taking place but, importantly enough, that there may be larger lessons to be learnt for South East Asia in particular and the development/environmental puzzle in general. The research design, to me, appears well formulated and positioned as an exciting project. At heart, lies the intention to forge a dialogue between the social and natural sciences. In other words, it seeks to trouble the “neutral” concepts of science with the value laden claims of the humanities. By thus disturbing and softening such disciplinary boundaries, this project opens up the possibility to debate problems of environmental transformation, social change and inevitably the elusive idea of sustainability. The Presentations For the Workshop on the 18th of July, the following themes were presented: a) An overview of the project b) Material and financial metabolism in oil palm production c) Trade in Sarawak in the 19th century d) Sustainable Forest Management at a logging area e) Inventory of Wild Life f) Trade on edible bird nests g) Water quality and water flows As is apparent from these concerns, the project aims to weave together and present a holistic picture of the kinds of challenges that are overwhelming the region. The themes, therefore, while able to be presented as stand-alone or discrete research efforts, they can easily feed into a larger attempt to outline a set of patterns and broader processes that are defining the region’s political economy and shaping its changed environmental contexts. The presentations on wild life and the discussion on the emergence of small holder palm oil growers suggest that the local populations in the watershed are not mere passive recipients to the changed scenario but rather are actively seeking to create possibilities for themselves. Put differently, one could conceptualize the local interventions as attempts at simultaneously coping, adapting and harnessing potential opportunities. That is, even though local populations might appear to be adversely affected by some of the new vulnerabilities and instabilities, they are also attempting to seize and create new opportunities. Perhaps, more papers will capture such local strategies and reveal their complex actions with regard to the changed social and environmental context. I am reminded of the wonderful book by William Cronon titled Changes in the Land. A classic which looks at how native American populations sought to respond to the European migrations to America. The presentations on histories of trade and the commercial links with distant urban centres and markets (bird nests for example) were helpful in emphasizing the region’s many complex connections with global commodities. Clearly, the Sarawak cannot be treated as being an isolated region nor insulated from broader global influences. The implications here are several. One of them being, the need to understand how local institutions for trade, exchange and commerce might be functioning, especially over time. And how such institutions might helps negotiate with the new pressures on the forests in the watershed. The presentations on the water quality and logging impacts bring into strong relief the need to ensure that the knowledge on high science and data generated by experts are kept in constant dialogue with peoples own perceptions about the problems of industrial plantations and their own sense about how they can be solved. I for one do not believe that expert assessments should function in isolation from the noise that local populations generate about their plight. Suggestions and my wish List Delighted and inspired as I am by the HBP research effort, I would suggest two types of cautions: a) I would develop the notion of social-nature here. In which it is important to grasp how local populations perceive and organize understandings of their natural surroundings through their existing cultural endowments. On the other hand, Nature cannot be entirely reduced to a cultural construction. Nature after all has its own materiality and can be examined and probed in a secular way through modern science. Maintaining such a theoretical tension, in my opinion, will be crucial to how the project sustains a dialogue between the social and natural sciences. b) Secondly, I would take up the challenge of exploring how new imaginations for the region are being constituted in the light of the dramatic changes that are occurring. Here, I would urge the scholars to pursue this as a problem constituting exercise rather than a problem solving exercise. The difference is the following: while problem constituting means the research team is keen to credibly and compellingly establish the various dimensions and colours of the problem, it does not attempt to overtly pursue solutions. This is important because correctly constructing a problem can imply solutions rather than insisting on a single solution pathway. On the other hand, a problem solving approach tends to exclude local voices as the expert tends to triumph in such a situation. Rather, once the problem is credibly established good policy will invite multi-stakeholder participation to negotiate solutions. As pointed out, this watershed comprises a series of habitat mosaics, in turn peopled by a range of different ethnic groups and lastly despite being positioned along distinct ecological zones they are nevertheless integrally linked through a spectrum of social and environmental relationships. The collage of habitat mosaics, in other words, are stitched together into a web of dependencies and mutually affirming linkages. Thus, solutions to their challenges will always involve democratic discussions and debate rather than top down expert led advice. Lastly, I would urge such an exercise to respond or engage with the fields of environmental history, political ecology, critical geography and Science and Technology Studies. Environmental transformation and social change are the bread and butter issues of the above mentioned fields/disciplines and an effort such as this has great capacity to speak to not only such writings but to also dialogue with comparative experiences elsewhere. The shift from being a riverine community to that of a roadside society has parallels in many parts of Asia and a study such as this, perhaps, can explain this phenomenon with new facts and another set of compelling theories.
Introduction The High Biomass Project (Henceforth HBP) has taken up the task of documenting and examining a profound moment of environmental transformation and social change along the sprawling watershed of the Kemena-Jelalong river in Sarawak (Borneo). The recent introduction of plantations (oilpalm and acacia), as a type of industrial ecology in the region, has, understandably, initiated wide-ranging landscape and cultural alterations. Capturing both the scale and depth of these impacts and other consequences in the Kemena-Jelalong watershed is undoubtedly an important research initiative. Not merely because it can track and analyse the environmental and social trajectories that are taking place but, importantly enough, that there may be larger lessons to be learnt for South East Asia in particular and the development/environmental puzzle in general. The research design, to me, appears well formulated and positioned as an exciting project. At heart, lies the intention to forge a dialogue between the social and natural sciences. In other words, it seeks to trouble the “neutral” concepts of science with the value laden claims of the humanities. By thus disturbing and softening such disciplinary boundaries, this project opens up the possibility to debate problems of environmental transformation, social change and inevitably the elusive idea of sustainability. The Presentations For the Workshop on the 18th of July, the following themes were presented: a) An overview of the project b) Material and financial metabolism in oil palm production c) Trade in Sarawak in the 19th century d) Sustainable Forest Management at a logging area e) Inventory of Wild Life f) Trade on edible bird nests g) Water quality and water flows As is apparent from these concerns, the project aims to weave together and present a holistic picture of the kinds of challenges that are overwhelming the region. The themes, therefore, while able to be presented as stand-alone or discrete research efforts, they can easily feed into a larger attempt to outline a set of patterns and broader processes that are defining the region’s political economy and shaping its changed environmental contexts. The presentations on wild life and the discussion on the emergence of small holder palm oil growers suggest that the local populations in the watershed are not mere passive recipients to the changed scenario but rather are actively seeking to create possibilities for themselves. Put differently, one could conceptualize the local interventions as attempts at simultaneously coping, adapting and harnessing potential opportunities. That is, even though local populations might appear to be adversely affected by some of the new vulnerabilities and instabilities, they are also attempting to seize and create new opportunities. Perhaps, more papers will capture such local strategies and reveal their complex actions with regard to the changed social and environmental context. I am reminded of the wonderful book by William Cronon titled Changes in the Land. A classic which looks at how native American populations sought to respond to the European migrations to America. The presentations on histories of trade and the commercial links with distant urban centres and markets (bird nests for example) were helpful in emphasizing the region’s many complex connections with global commodities. Clearly, the Sarawak cannot be treated as being an isolated region nor insulated from broader global influences. The implications here are several. One of them being, the need to understand how local institutions for trade, exchange and commerce might be functioning, especially over time. And how such institutions might helps negotiate with the new pressures on the forests in the watershed. The presentations on the water quality and logging impacts bring into strong relief the need to ensure that the knowledge on high science and data generated by experts are kept in constant dialogue with peoples own perceptions about the problems of industrial plantations and their own sense about how they can be solved. I for one do not believe that expert assessments should function in isolation from the noise that local populations generate about their plight. Suggestions and my wish List Delighted and inspired as I am by the HBP research effort, I would suggest two types of cautions: a) I would develop the notion of social-nature here. In which it is important to grasp how local populations perceive and organize understandings of their natural surroundings through their existing cultural endowments. On the other hand, Nature cannot be entirely reduced to a cultural construction. Nature after all has its own materiality and can be examined and probed in a secular way through modern science. Maintaining such a theoretical tension, in my opinion, will be crucial to how the project sustains a dialogue between the social and natural sciences. b) Secondly, I would take up the challenge of exploring how new imaginations for the region are being constituted in the light of the dramatic changes that are occurring. Here, I would urge the scholars to pursue this as a problem constituting exercise rather than a problem solving exercise. The difference is the following: while problem constituting means the research team is keen to credibly and compellingly establish the various dimensions and colours of the problem, it does not attempt to overtly pursue solutions. This is important because correctly constructing a problem can imply solutions rather than insisting on a single solution pathway. On the other hand, a problem solving approach tends to exclude local voices as the expert tends to triumph in such a situation. Rather, once the problem is credibly established good policy will invite multi-stakeholder participation to negotiate solutions. As pointed out, this watershed comprises a series of habitat mosaics, in turn peopled by a range of different ethnic groups and lastly despite being positioned along distinct ecological zones they are nevertheless integrally linked through a spectrum of social and environmental relationships. The collage of habitat mosaics, in other words, are stitched together into a web of dependencies and mutually affirming linkages. Thus, solutions to their challenges will always involve democratic discussions and debate rather than top down expert led advice. Lastly, I would urge such an exercise to respond or engage with the fields of environmental history, political ecology, critical geography and Science and Technology Studies. Environmental transformation and social change are the bread and butter issues of the above mentioned fields/disciplines and an effort such as this has great capacity to speak to not only such writings but to also dialogue with comparative experiences elsewhere. The shift from being a riverine community to that of a roadside society has parallels in many parts of Asia and a study such as this, perhaps, can explain this phenomenon with new facts and another set of compelling theories.